How to continue with your studies

These are suggestions as to how to continue with your studies for the next two semesters. They make sense and they ensure that you keep up with the credit points required to finish your studies in six semesters, but they are only suggestions – you are free to choose any other order of modules.

The linguistics, literature and culture classes are directed at all students of English philology, regardless of whether you are a future teacher or not. They do not include any teaching-specific content. However, feel free to ask your instructors whether they have any particular advice for future teachers – some (not all) of them will be happy to take your needs into account.

If you have questions or comments, please feel free to use the comment function!

Major (Hauptfach, 90 ECTS points)

Within the next two semesters, you should complete the following modules (if you are a future teacher, you must also take Fachdidaktik courses on which I will not comment here):

  1. AM 1: Surveying English Literatures
  2. AM 2: Introduction to Cultural Studies
  3. AM 3: Medieval English Literature
  4. AM 4: Levels of Linguistic Analysis
  5. AM 5: History of English
  6. Sprachpraxis: Oral and Writing Skills 1 (and maybe even Sprachpraxis: Oral and Writing Skills 2)

If you are a more of a history nerd (i.e., you love one or all of: Game of Thrones, Lord of the Rings, Vikings) and want to dive straight into the history of the English Language and Literature) I suggest the following:

Semester Modules
Summer 2021 AM 3: Medieval English Literature AM 5: History of English Oral and Writing Skills 1*
Winter 2021/22 AM 1: Surveying English Literatures AM 4: Levels of Linguistic Analysis AM 2: Intr. to Cultural Studies

* If you have already taken Oral and Writing Skills 1, try to get into Oral and Writing Skills 2, or take Intro. to Cultural Studies in the Summer and OWS 2 in the Winter.

If you are more interested in the present and want to get a better idea of modern English language and literature, I suggest the following:

Semester Modules
Summer 2021 AM 1: Surveying English Literatures AM 4: Levels of Linguistic Analysis Oral and Writing Skills 1*
Winter 2021/22 AM 3: Medieval English Literature AM 5: History of English AM 2: Intr. to Cultural Studies

* If you have already taken Oral and Writing Skills 1, try to get into Oral and Writing Skills 2, or take Intro. to Cultural Studies in the Summer and OWS 2 in the Winter.

If you are interested in the future (i.e., you love one of the following: Star Wars, The Expanse, Arrival), you’re largely out of luck, our cultural studies and literature professors don’t seem to be interested in the genre of Science Fiction, and linguists are very careful about predicting language change that has not happened yet. So just follow the instructions for students interested in the present (but tell me you are interested in the future of language, maybe we can get enough people together to start a discussion group…).

Core (Kernfach, 60 ECTS points)

With in the next two semesters, you should complete three of the following modules (if you are a future teacher, you must also take Fachdidaktik courses on which I will not comment here):

  1. AM 1: Surveying English Literatures
  2. AM 2: Introduction to Cultural Studies
  3. AM 3: Medieval English Literature
  4. AM 4: Levels of Linguistic Analysis
  5. AM 5: History of English

In addition, you must complete the module Sprachpraxis: Oral and Writing Skills 1.

After that, you have three semesters left to complete the other two Aufbau modules, one Vertiefung module and the Sprachpraxis modules Oral and Writing Skills 2 and Mediating Skills.

If you are a more of a history nerd (i.e., you love one or all of: Merlin, The Tudors, Monty Python and the Holy Grail) and want to dive straight into the history of the English Language and Literature) I suggest the following:

Semester Modules
Summer 2021 AM 5: History of English Oral and Writing Skills 1*
Winter 2021/22 AM 3: Medieval English Literature AM 2: Intr. to Cultural Studies

* If you have already taken Oral and Writing Skills 1, try to get into Oral and Writing Skills 2, or take Intro. to Cultural Studies in the Summer and OWS 2 in the Winter.

If you live in the present moment and want to get a better idea of modern English language and literature, I suggest the following:

Semester Modules
Summer 2021 AM 4: Levels of Linguistic Analysis Oral and Writing Skills 1*
Winter 2021/22 AM 1: Surveying English Literatures AM 2: Intr. to Cultural Studies

* If you have already taken Oral and Writing Skills 1, try to get into Oral and Writing Skills 2, or take Intro. to Cultural Studies in the Summer and OWS 2 in the Winter.

If you are interested in the future (i.e., you love one of the following: Star Trek, Blade Runner, Avatar), you’re largely out of luck, our cultural studies and literature professors don’t seem to be interested in the genre of Science Fiction, and linguists are very careful about predicting language change that has not happened yet. So just follow the instructions for students interested in the present (but tell me you are interested in the future of language, maybe we can get enough people together to start a discussion group…).

Minor (Nebenfach, 30 ECTS-Points)

You will only study two of the following modules, so choose carefully!

  1. AM 1: Surveying English Literatures
  2. AM 2: Introduction to Cultural Studies
  3. AM 3: Medieval English Literature
  4. AM 4: Levels of Linguistic Analysis
  5. AM 5: History of English

If you are more interested in literature and culture, I suggest the following:

Semester Modules
Summer 2021 AM 1: Surveying English Literatures
Winter 2021/22 AM 2: Intr. to Cultural Studies

If you are more interested in language and culture, I suggest the following:

Semester Modules
Summer 2021 AM 4: Levels of Linguistic Analysis
Winter 2021/22 AM 2: Intr. to Cultural Studies

If you are more interested in the past, I suggest the following (however, it will be difficult to follow these classes without any additional background in linguistics and literary studies, so you might want to switch to studying English as a Major):

Semester Modules
Summer 2021 AM 5: History of English
Winter 2021/22 AM 3: Medieval English Literature

Primary School Teaching (Grundschulpädagogik, 30 ECTS points)

Grundschulpädagogik is a separate program of studies offered by the Dahlem School of Education, so please follow their rules and suggestions before you follow mine.

Roughly speaking, all Grundschulpädagogik students must complete the following modules (in addition to Fachdidaktik modules on which I will not comment here):

  1. AM 1: Surveying English Literatures
  2. AM 2: Introduction to Cultural Studies
  3. Oral and Writing Skills I plus

So I suggest that you focus on those modules for the next two semesters.

After that, if English is your Vertiefungsfach, you must complete all of the following:

  1. AM 3: Medieval English Literature
  2. AM 4: Levels of Linguistic Analysis
  3. AM 5: History of English

If English is not your Vertiefungsfach, you must choose two of them. The choice is up to you, but let me say that I strongly recommend that you choose AM 4: Levels of Linguistic Analysis as one of your modules – especially in primary school, it is important to have a good understanding of language structures, while the History of English and Medieval English Literature come up very rarely in this context! If you follow this recommendation, please let your instructor(s) in linguistics know that you are future primary school teachers, most of us will be happy to try to address your particular interests in some way!

Rückblick und Vorausschau

Liebe Studierende,

die Vorlesungszeit ist ja noch nicht vorbei und es soll deshalb noch nicht zu sehr nach einem Abschied in die vorlesungsfreie Zeit klingen, aber es ist klar, dass für die meisten von Ihnen die Leistungen für dieses Modul erbracht sind und es langsam an der Zeit ist, zurück und voraus zu blicken. Ich habe von einigen von Ihnen E-Mails erhalten, in denen sie sich entweder für das Modul bedankt oder Fragen zu Ihren Noten gestellt haben (oder beides), und in denen Sie zum Teil auch von Ihrem Erleben dieses sehr merkwürdigen ersten Semesters erzählt haben.

Ich möchte das zum Anlass nehmen, um ein paar allgemeine Gedanken zu diesen E-Mails zu äußern, die Ihnen vielleicht weiterhelfen.

Erstens, die Noten. Machen Sie sich hier zunächst keine großen Gedanken um eine Drittelnote mehr oder weniger. Bedenken Sie, dass die Note für dieses Modul nur 2,7 Prozent Ihrer Abschlussnote ausmachen wird – selbst der Unterschied zwischen einer 1 und einer 4 wäre in der Abschlussnote nur an der zweiten Stelle hinter dem Komma sichtbar – könnte also nicht einmal einen Unterschied zwischen einer 1,0 und einer 1,1 ausmachen. Nehmen Sie die Note also eher als Signal, wo Sie mit Ihrem Wissen und Verständnis in etwa stehen, als sich um ein oder zwei verlorene Punkte Gedanken zu machen. Sie haben noch mindestens fünf Semester vor sich, um zu entdecken, wo innerhalb des Faches Ihre Stärken liegen und Sie werden viele Gelegenheiten haben, mit diesen Stärken zu glänzen und die Schwächen zu beheben!

Zweitens, Ihre Dankesworte. Von mehreren Seiten habe ich gehört, dass Ihnen unser Modul und die Vorlesung zwar nicht mit jedem einzelnen Thema begeistern konnten (das wäre auch zu viel verlangt), ihnen aber insgesamt Spaß gemacht und Ihr Interesse an der wissenschaftlichen Betrachtung von Sprache geweckt hat. Das war unsere Absicht, und es freut uns, dass uns das gelungen ist. Wenn Sie konstruktive Kritik für uns haben, lassen Sie es uns aber gerne wissen – es hilft uns sowohl, den nächsten Jahrgang noch besser in das Fach einzuführen, als auch, in den fortführenden Veranstaltungen gezielter auf Ihre Bedürfnisse einzugehen. Es war unser zweites Semester unter Bedingungen der Online-Lehre, wir stehen da also selbst noch am Anfang und müssen (und wollen) dazulernen.

Drittens, das Studium unter den Bedingungen der Online-Lehre. Das wird für uns alle leider noch eine Weile lang Normalfall sein – das Sommersemester wird ja in jedem Fall online stattfinden. Ich persönlich gehe davon aus, dass auch das nächste Wintersemester noch keine Rückkehr in den Präsenzbetrieb sehen wird – da die Impfungen viel zu langsam vorangehen und das Virus in der Zwischenzeit munter mutiert, kann es tatsächlich auch noch viel länger dauern. Hoffen wir, dass es anders kommt und wir uns im Sommer 2022 endlich einmal physisch begegnen werden, aber rechnen wir lieber nicht damit, sondern stellen wir uns der aktuellen Situation.

Und die betrifft nicht nur (und nicht vor allem) die Lehre – hier hat die Digitalisierung ja teilweise auch Vorteile, die wir zu nutzen versuchen können. Noch vor fünf Jahren wäre es undenkbar gewesen, Seminare und Vorlesungen per Videokonferenz abzuhalten, und auch die digitalen Werkzeuge (Blogs, Videos, Dokumentenablage, gemeinsames Arbeiten an Dokumenten usw.) sind erst in den letzen zehn Jahren wirklich massentauglich geworden.

Nein, es betrifft vor allem die Lebenssituation, in der Sie studieren und wir lehren müssen. Viele Studierende berichten uns von Schwierigkeiten, eine Struktur in ihren Studienalltag zu bekommen – das ist einer der Gründe, warum wir sehr stark auf gemeinsame Videokonferenzen setzen, die wenigstens Anknüpfungspunkte für eine Struktur sein können. Gehen Sie aber das Problem auch von sich aus aktiv an und schaffen Sie sich selbst solche Anknüpfungspunkte – z.B. durch selbst organisierte Online-Arbeitsgruppen, und vor allem durch einen Tagesplan, bei dem Sie zwischen Arbeit und Freizeit klar trennen. Das ist schwer, wenn beides hauptsächlich online stattfindet, aber es ist umso wichtiger. Ich selbst versuche, mir für jeden Tag einen Stundenplan zu machen und klar festzulegen, wann ich welche Arbeiten ausführe und wann der Arbeitstag vorbei ist. Den Feierabend markiere ich dann bewusst durch ein Ritual (einen Spaziergang, ein Glas Wein oder eine Tasse Tee auf dem Balkon (derzeit im Wintermantel), o.ä.).

Das ändert nichts an der Enge und Gleichförmigkeit der Lebenssituation. Selbst ich kann meine Wohnung langsam nicht mehr ertragen, und mir ist klar, dass für die meisten von Ihnen die Wohnsituation wesentlich beengter und anstrengender sein dürfte als für mich. Hier hilft zum einen nur die Flucht in virtuelle Welten (ich gucke Netflix inzwischen hauptsächlich, um Menschen ohne Maske zu sehen, die ein normales Leben führen – die Handlung ist mir weitgehend egal), oder eben nach draußen, wo das möglich ist. Das hat aber natürlich seine Grenzen, und mir ist (auch durch Ihre E-Mails) bewusst, dass diese Situation, die überhaupt nicht dem Leben entspricht, dass Sie sich für Ihre Studienzeit vorgestellt haben, und dass das dazu führt, dass sie immer wieder mit dem Gedanken spielen, das Studium gleich wieder aufzugeben und auf später zu verschieben. Nun kann es natürlich sein, dass Sie das für Sie falsche Studium gewählt haben oder dass das Studium insgesamt nicht das Richtige für Sie ist. Wenn das der Fall ist, sollten Sie andere Fächer oder Ausbildungswege ausprobieren. Wenn es aber nur der Lockdown-Blues ist, der diese Gedanken verursacht, machen Sie sich klar: Selbst, wenn der Lockdown noch ein Jahr dauert, können Sie danach Ihr Leben und Ihren Studienalltag immer noch so gestalten, wie Sie es sich vorgestellt hatten – nur, dass Sie dann bereits an das universitäre Arbeiten gewöhnt sind und das ganze noch mehr genießen können. Also verdrängen Sie nicht das Schlechte, Bedrückende, Frustrierende an der derzeitigen Situation – reden Sie darüber, miteinander und, wenn Sie möchten, mit uns. Aber sehen Sie daneben auch das Positive – irgendwann ist es vorbei und dann haben Sie es wenigstens genutzt, um mit dem Studium voranzukommen.

Wir hoffen also, dass Sie sich von Ihrem coronageplagten Studienstart nicht entmutigen lassen, sondern die Herausforderung darin sehen – wer weiß, vielleicht macht sie das am Ende zu einem besonders starken Jahrgang. Wir freuen uns darauf, Sie im nächsten Semester in unseren Veranstaltungen wiederzusehen – zwar online, aber trotzdem persönlich!

Bis nächsten Montag,

Anatol Stefanowitsch

Week 9: Truth and meaning

Truth and meaning

One traditional approach to meaning “truth-conditional semantics”. Put simply, this approach is based on three assumptions:

  1. Sentences (or at least declarative sentences) have truth conditions – a set of things that must be true about the real world in order for the content of the sentence (also called the proposition) to be true.
  2. The meaning of a (declarative) sentence can be captured entirely in terms of its truth conditions (if we can describe the truth conditions of a sentence, we have described its meaning).
  3. Any part of the communicative function of a sentence that cannot be captured in terms of truth conditions is not part of its meaning in the strict sense, sometimes called “sentence meaning” (it may be part of what is sometimes called “speaker meaning”), something we will come back to in a few weeks.

Let us look at the following example:

(1) Donald Trump incited a violent mob to storm the US Capitol.

The following is an attempt to list the things that must be true about the world in order for this sentence to be true:

a. There is a person named Donald Trump (DT)
b. There is a group of people (G)
c. There is a place named the US capitol (C)
d. G is willing to use violence
e. G should not be in C
f. DT did (said) something to G
g. Because of (f), G entered C by force
h. DT knew (d)
i. DT wanted (g) to happen

The idea is that the conditions in (a-i) describe the meaning of (1). Note that is a completely different question from the question whether (1) is, in fact, true.

Now consider the sentence in (2):

(2) A violent mob was incited by Donald Trump to storm the US Capitol.

Note that it has the same truth conditions as (1) – whenever (1) is true (2) is true, and whenever (1) is false, (2) is false. In other words: (1) and (2) have the same meaning! This does not mean that they are completely identical in terms of their communicative function. For example, (1) puts the focus on the person referred to as Donald Trump, while (2) puts the focus on the group described as violent mob. But this is part of speaker meaning (putting the focus on one or the other does not change the meaning of the sentences themselves).

Uses of truth-conditional semantics

Most modern semantic theories do not assume this is a good way of describing the meaning of sentences, but truth-conditions are nevertheless an extremely useful tool for understanding relationships between propositions. Let us look at some of these relations.

Paraphrase

Grammatical paraphrase

We already saw that truth conditions can be used to show that two different grammatical structures have the same meaning: (1) and (2) differ only in that one is an active sentence and the other a passive sentence – since they have the same meaning, we can conclude that active and passive sentences are always paraphrases of each other – that these two grammatical structures have the same meaning.

This can be more formally expressed by using a so-called “truth table”. We call the proposition of the first sentence “p” and that of the second sentence “q”, and then we determine how the truth (or falsity) of paffects the truth of qand vice versa.

p: Donald Trump incited a violent mob to storm the US Capitol.
q: A violent mob was incited by Donald Trump to storm the US Capitol.

Truth tables:

p q
T T
F F
q p
T T
F F

(These tables are read as follows: “If [proposition in first column] is [true/false], then [proposition in second column] is [true/false]”; for example, the first row of the first table means “If is true, is true”).

Paraphrase (lexical)

We would get the same truth tables for the propositions of the following pair of sentences:

p: Donald Trump incited a violent mob to storm the US Capitol.
q: Donald Trump egged on a violent mob to storm the US Capitol.

These are also paraphrases of each other, in this case, because incite and egg on mean the same thing (except that one is formal an one is colloquial, but that is a difference in speaker meaning).

Paraphrase (referential)

And we would get the same truth tables for the propositions of the following pair of sentences:

p: Donald Trump incited a violent mob to storm the US Capitol.
q: The president of the USA incited a violent mob to storm the US Capitol.

In this case, the reason is not that Donald Trump and The president of the USA mean the same thing (names don’t have meaning at all), but that (at the time of writing) they refer to the same person.

Contradiction (Negation)

The opposite of paraphrase is contradiction – this is a situation where if is true, qmust be false and vice versa –(only one of or can be true). The clearest case of contradiction is provided by pairs of sentences that are identical except for the fact that one of them is negated:

p: Donald Trump incited a violent mob to storm the US Capitol.
q: Donald Trump did not incite a violent mob to storm the US Capitol.

Truth tables:

p q
T F
F T
q p
T F
F T

Entailment

A very interesting relationship between two propositions is that of entailment – a situation where one proposition logically follows from another. Consider the following examples:

p: Donald Trump persuaded a violent mob to storm the US Capitol.
q: A violent mob planned to storm the US Capitol.

Here, if pis true, then qmust be true – to persuade someone to do something means that they plan to do it (and will do it unless someone stops them or they change their mind later). However, the two sentences are not paraphrases, because if is true, could be true or false – if it is true that a violent mob planned to storm the US Capitol, the reason could be that Donald Trump persuaded them, but it does not have to be. In other words, the relationship only goes on one direction (q follows from p, not the other way around).

Truth tables:

p q
T T
F T/F
q p
T T/F
F F

This is interesting, because the entailment is triggered by the meaning of the verb persuade – if we choose a verb like urge, which at first looks similar and might be given as a synonym in a thesaurus, the entailment disappears. Consinder:

p: Donald Trump urged a violent mob to storm the US Capitol.
q: A violent mob planned to storm the US Capitol.

Truth tables:

p q
T T/F
F T/F
q p
T T/F
F T/F

Negative entailment

Another relation between propositions is that of negative entailment: here, if is true, must be false but if is false, can be true or false. Consider:

p: Donald Trump persuaded a violent mob to storm the US Capitol.
q: The mob planned to stay away from the US Capitol.

If Donald Trump persuaded the violent mob to storm the Capitol, it cannot be true that the mob planned to stay away from the Capitol (this would mean that they were not persuaded). However, if Donald Trump did not persuade them, they could either plan to stay away, or they could plan to storm it for some other reason.

Truth tables:

p q
T F
F T/F
q p
T T/F
F F

Presupposition

Finally, the most interesting relationship between two propositions is that of presupposition. Here, qmust be true regardless of whether is true or not. Consider:

p: The president of the USA incited a violent mob to storm the US Capitol.
q: There is a president of the USA

If the president of the USA incited a violent mob to storm the US Capitol, then there must be a president of the USA – otherwise he could not have done what is claimed. However, if the president of the USA did not incite a violent mob to storm the US Capitol, then there must also be a president of the USA – otherwise it does not make sense to talk about things he did not do. In other words: must be true before it makes any sense to think about the truth or falsity of p; if is false, is meaningless.

Truth tables:

p q
T T
F T
q p
T T/F
F F

Frequent sources of presupposition

Presuppositions are triggered by all kinds of linguistic structures. Some of the most frequent ones are the following:

1. Definite descriptions

p: The president of the USA incited a violent mob to storm the US Capitol.
q: There is a president of the USA.

2. Factive verbs

p: Donald Trump regrets inciting a violent mob to storm the US Capitol.
q: Donald Trump incited a violent mob to storm the US Capitol.

3. Implicative verbs

p: Donald Trump managed to incite a violent mob to storm the US Capitol.
q: Donald Trump tried to incite a violent mob to storm the US Capitol.

4. Verbs of change and continuation

p: Donald Trump ceased/continued to incite a violent mob to storm the US Capitol.
q: Donald Trump had been inciting a violent mob to storm the US Capitol.

5. Iterative expressions

p: Donald Trump again incited a violent mob to storm the US Capitol
q: Donald Trump had incited a violent mob to storm the US Capitol at least once before.

6. Temporal clauses

p: While inciting a violent mob to storm the US Capitol, Donald Trump was hoping he could remain president of the USA
q: Donald Trump was inciting a violent mob to storm the US Capitol.

Week 4 (Part II): Meaning, sound and writing

In addition to the main take-away points from the previous post, there was a short discussion of the relation between meaning, sounds and writing.

1. Please get used to thinking about sounds and letters as completely separate elements of linguistic structure. Especially in English, it does not make sense to say that “a letter is pronounced in a particular way” or “a sound is written in a particular way”. Linguistic are units that link sound and meaning, writing is irrelevant to this link.

2. However, of course most speech communities use some form of writing, so it is an interesting question how written forms are related to sound an meaning. Remember the different types of writing systems we talked about in Week 1. How might they fit into a model of linguistic signs? For logographic writing systems, this is relatively easy to answer: the written form must be linked directly to the meaning side of a linguistic sign. It is related to the sound only because the sound is also related to this meaning (see Slide 8, example from Chinese). For phonographic writing systems we could imagine a separate level of “signs” where the form is a particular character and the “meaning” is a particular sound, as in the Japanese example on Slide 8 (the word [inu] is written by using the characters corresponding to the syllables [i] and [nu]).

We could imagine the same for English, but this would fail because d does not always stand for [d] (it stands for [t] in walked, for example), does not always stand for [ɔ] (it stands for [u] in boot and [oʊ] in home, for example), and g does not always stand for [ɡ] (it stands for [f] in enough). So while in “shallow” orthographies like Spanish, we may think of letters as having sounds as their “meaning”, in deep orthographies like English, the written form must be attached directly to the meaning, as in Chinese.

Week 4 (Part I): The linguistic sign

These are the major take-aways from today’s lecture.

1. In spoken languages, signs are combinations of a meaning concept (a mental knowledge structure of some sort, simply referred to as concept) and a sound concept (a mental representation of a particular sequence of phonemes, referred to as an acoustic image in early structuralist linguistics, more likely referred to as a phonemic representation nowadays).

2. The link between sound and meaning is arbitrary for almost all linguistic signs, i.e., there is no reason why this particular sound should be linked to this particular meaning. Take the word fire – it refers to “combustion or burning, in which substances combine chemically with oxygen from the air and typically give out bright light, heat, and smoke” (Oxford New American Dictionary), but nothing about the sound sequence /ˈfaɪɚ/ (AmE) or  /ˈfaɪə/ (BrE) has a logical connection to this meaning – speakers simply have to learn the association.

3. Such arbitrary signs are called symbols. There are two other types of sign: iconic signs, where the form resembles the meaning, and indexical signs, where the form correlates with the meaning in our experience.

4. There are a few apparent exceptions to arbitrariness in language: some words, like cuckoo, resemble (some aspect) of their meaning (in this case, the noise that the bird makes) – they are partially iconic. However, the iconicity is limited: first, we still have to learn that a cuckoo is called cuckoo, but a rooster is not called cockadoodledoo; second, the similarity is very marginal, concerning not the meaning (here: the bird) itself, but only a peripheral aspect (the noise the bird makes). Some people also argue that there are indexical signs, like the word ouch that might be an intuitive reflex of pain. Again, the indexicality is limited: first, we don’t have to say ouch when we feel pain, but there has to be smoke if there is fire; second, there is a lot of variation in different languages concerning the noise associated with pain, showing that these expressions, too, are largely arbitrary.

5. In other words: arbitrariness is a very basic and general principle of human language.

6. Signs may be simple, like fire, which does not consist of smaller signs, or complex, like fire fighter, which consists of smaller signs, firefight, and -er. Signs that cannot be split up into smaller signs are called morphemes.

7. Morphemes can combine into larger words and words can combine into phrases and sentences. This allows us to express an infinite number of thoughts with a limited inventory of morphemes. Interestingly, the morphemes themselves are complex on the level of sounds: they consist of one or more phonemes (typically more than one) that do not have meaning themselves. This property of language is called duality of patterning (or double articulation): on the first level, (meaningful) morphemes are combined into larger meaningful structures, on the second level, meaningless phonemes are combined into  larger meaningless structures (syllables). This allows us to use a limited set of phonemes (English has between 30 and 40, depending on which variety we are talking about) to create a limitless number of morphemes (nobody knows how many morphemes English has, but several tens of thousands is a good guess).

[Lecture] Week 1: Writing systems

The first point of this week’s lecture was to impress on you the fact that writing systems are not an inherent “part” of language, as

  1. languages can have more than one writing system (e.g. Serbian, whose speakers use both the Latin and the Cyrillic alphabets);
  2. a speech community can shift from one writing system to another very suddenly (e.g. Turkish, which shifted from Arabic to Latin in 1928);
  3. changes within a writing system can be decreed by law (as in the case of the German spelling reform),

None of these things are possible with the sound system of a language or with other aspects of linguistic structure.

The second point was to provide an overview of writing systems, as shown in the following slide:

The third point was to point out that English has a segmental writing system, but not a very transparent one – as opposed, for example, to Spanish:

The reasons for the intransparent orthography of English are largely historical. There are four main reasons:

  1. For many words, the spelling became fixed early, so when the sound system of English changed, the spelling no longer corresponded to the pronunciation – for example dream was pronounced [drɛam] in Old English, which is fairly transparent, and while the pronunciation changed to [driːm] (due to general sound changes in English), the spelling did not change with it, thus becoming intransparent.
  2. For other words, the spelling was adjusted at some point in an attempt to capture the new pronunciation – depending on when this happened, different ways of representing a sound were used, leading to inconsistencies.
  3. For yet other words, the spelling was adjusted to match what people thought was the original pronunciation (etymologizing spellings). For example, the word salmon was always pronounced without an [l] – Middle English [saːˈmuːn], Modern English [ˈsæmən], as it was borrowed from Norman French samoun. However, because the ultimate Latin root salmō contains an <l>, this was added to the English spelling in an attempt at etymological authenticity.
  4. Loan words typically retain their spelling wholly or partially when borrowed into English.

The final point of the lecture was to draw awareness to the fact that it may be useful to have an orthography that does not correspond to the pronunciation very closely, as it means that homophones (words that sound the same but mean different things) can be disambiguated in writing (for example, by, bye and buy. In this sense, English spelling has some properties of logographic writing systems.

Clarifications about “Exam questions” and “Exercises”

Just to make sure that there is no confusion – there are two types of “homework” associated with this module:

  1. The “Exam Questions” (also referred to as “transfer tasks”) – there is one exam question every week, published on the Blackboard page of the Lecture on Friday at 12:00, which you must submit by Monday at 14:00. Your answers will be graded and your final grade will be based on these. You can consult your notes, books, the internet and other materials when answering these questions, but you must not discuss them with each other or with other people.
  2. The homework exercises posted by the instructors of your individual seminars (either on the blog or on the blackboard page of the seminar, not the lecture!). These are meant to give you opportunities to practice, they will typically be posted after the seminar. Ask your instructors about feedback. The exercises will not be graded and will not form part of your final grade. You can consult any materials you want and also discuss the exercises with each other.

Some important information from today’s session

  1. For the first few weeks, the lecture will take place directly in my Webex room – simply go to https://fu-berlin.webex.com/meet/anatol.stefanowitsch – please remember to turn off your microphone when you join the room, turn it on only when you want to speak.
  2. If you do not have a place in one of the seminars yet or if you have a place but want to switch to a different seminar, please fill out this form by Friday, 6th November: https://forms.gle/MARvV3AnAQuE6keG6
  3. Attendance is obligatory in the lecture and in the seminars. You can miss up to three classes without having to tell us or giving us a reason, but please make sure to ask someone you know about what was discussed during class.
  4. The exam for this course will be delivered in the form of one so-called “transfer question” per week, which will be posted on the Blackboard page of the lecture each Friday at 12:00 and must be answered before Monday 14:00. Each question will be graded and your final grade will be the average grade of all your answers, excluding your worst two grades. You may use any resources you want in answering the questions, but you must not discuss it with other students or copy other student’s results.
  5. If you have not been enrolled automatically on Blackboard, please go to “Course Search” and search for “Course ID contains PHILGEIST_V_17308_20W” – when you have found the course, you can self-enroll. Please be patient, the Blackboard system is always slow at the beginning of a new semester.
  6. There will be WhatsApp groups for the individual seminars, where you can connect (your instructors and I will not be members, this is just for you). We will create the groups once we have made sure everyone has a place in one of the seminars.
  7. Follow us on Instagram @fu.linguistics or (if you are a bit old-fashioned) Twitter @structengfu for campus atmosphere, pictures from our home offices, linguistics fun and a sense of community (the woolly socks in the colors of the Freie Universität which I am wearing on today’s picture were handmade for me and are not for sale, sorry).

Welcome, new students!

The Linguistics section of the Freie Universität’s English program would like to congratulate you on being accepted into one of the top universities in the country and thank you for choosing us!

Of course, we would like to welcome you in person to our beautiful campus in Berlin’s historic Dahlem district, but the global COVID-19 pandemic has made this impossible. Your first semester at university will take place entirely (or almost entirely) online – through video and audio conferences, blogs, forums, text chats and email.

But don’t worry – we will make sure that your start into university life will be just as interesting, inspiring and personal as it would have been under different circumstances.

In your first semester, you will take two modules – Introduction to English Linguistics and Introduction to Literary Studies. This blog is your starting point for everything related to the first of these modules – check this blog regularly several times a week, and you will always know what to do and where to be at what time!

The module consists of a lecture “Survey of Language and Linguistics” and a seminar “Introduction to Linguistics”. You are all in the same lecture, which takes place on Mondays from 14:15 to 15:45. For further information, simply click on the link “Lecture” in the menu. For the seminars, you have been divided into six groups. To find out more about your seminar, click on the course number of your seminar.

If you are confused, please feel free to send us an email at structeng@fu-berlin.de. Make sure your email contains your full name and your student-id number!

To find out a little bit more about us or to contact us personally, look at the Contact page of this blog.

If you want, you can follow us on Instagram @fu.linguistics for a mixture campus atmosphere, linguistics fun and getting to know us a little better (if you are concerned about your privacy – don’t worry, we will not follow you back or look at your instagram posts unless you specifically ask us!).

Again, welcome to the Freie Universität and have fun!

– The Linguistics group

[17308] Survey of Language and Linguistics

Course description

The module consists of two parts – the lecture “Survey of Language and Linguistics”, which is mostly taught in the form of a live lecture in a video conference format and which all students attend together, and the seminars “Introduction to Linguistics”, for which students are split up into groups and which are taught as a mixture of recorded presentations and live video sessions.

In the lecture, I will introduce each week’s topic in broad terms and provide a general space for discussion, as well as trying to provide a general linguistic education. In the seminars, your instructors will then get into the details of linguistic terminology and analysis.

The lecture takes place in my “Webex” video conference room, which you can access under http://fu-berlin.webex.com/meet/anatol.stefanowitsch can sign in with your ZEDAT email address and password. It is possible to use this video conferencing system in your web browser, but I recommend that you install the Webex Meetings app on your preferred device, as the quality is much better!

Course schedule

02.11.2020 | Introduction
09.11.2020 | Speech and writing
16.11.2020 | Phonetics
23.11.2020 | Phonology
30.11.2020 | From Phonology to Morphology
07.12.2020 | Morphology
14.12.2020 | Syntax I: Words and phrases
04.01.2021 | Syntax II: Grammatical relations
11.01.2021 | Semantics I: Sentences
18.01.2021 | Semantics II: Lexical semantics
25.01.2021 | Pragmatics
01.02.2021 | Text linguistics
08.02.2021 | Linguistic research at the Freie Universität Berlin
15.02.2021 | Outlook: Empirical methods
22.02.2021 | Exam